Preface xi
Preface to the first Edition xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Photodetection Preliminary 4
1.2 Basic Parameters of Photodetectors 6
References 8
Chapter 2 Radiometry Calculations 9
2.1 The Law of Photography 9
2.2 The Invariants in Free Propagation 11
2.3 Acceptance and Degrees of Freedom 12
2.4 Applying Invariance to Problem Solving 14
2.5 Extension of Invariants 17
References 19
Problems and Questions 19
Chapter 3 Detection Regimes and Figures of Merit 21
3.1 The Bandwidth-Noise Tradeoff 21
3.2 Quantum and Thermal Regimes 23
3.3 Figures of Merit of Detectors 26
3.3.1 NEP and Detectivity 27
3.3.2 Background Limit or BLIP 28
3.3.3 NEP and D* for Single Photon Detection 29
References 30
Problems 30
Chapter 4 Photomultipliers 31
4.1 Photocathodes 34
4.1.1 Properties of Common Photocathodes 37
4.1.2 Photocathodes Technology 41
4.1.3 Photocathodes Parameters 44
4.2 Dynode Multiplication Chain 47
4.2.1 Dynode Materials and Properties 49
4.3 The Electron Optics 51
4.4 Common Photomultiplier Structures 52
4.5 Photomultiplier Response, Gain, and Noise 54
4.5.1 Charge Response 55
4.5.2 Current Response 58
4.5.3 Autocorrelation Response 67
4.5.4 Time Sorting and Measurements 69
4.6 Special Photomultiplier Structures 71
4.7 Photomultiplier Performances 72
4.7.1 Types of Photocathodes and Spectral Response 72
4.7.2 Number of Dynodes and Gain 73
4.7.3 SER Waveform and Related Parameters 74
4.7.4 Linearity, Dynamic Range, and Saturation 76
4.7.5 Resolution in Amplitude Measurements 78
4.7.6 Dark Current 79
4.7.7 Bias Circuits 80
4.7.8 Hysteresis and Drift. Ambient Performances 81
4.8 Applications of Photomultipliers 83
4.8.1 Detection of Weak Signals of Moderate Bandwidth 83
4.8.2 Measurement of Fast Waveforms 83
4.8.3 Time Measurements 85
4.8.4 Photocounting Techniques 86
4.8.5 Nuclear Radiation Spectroscopy 89
4.8.6 Dating with Radionuclides 91
4.9 Microchannels and MCP Photomultipliers 91
4.9.1 The Microchannel 91
4.9.2 MCP Photomultipliers 97
4.10. MEMS Photomultipliers 99
References 100
Problems 101
Chapter 5 Photodiodes 103
5.1 Introduction and Nomenclature 103
5.2 Junction photodiodes 105
5.2.1 Photoresponse of the PN Junction 106
5.2.2 Electrical Characteristics 115
5.2.3 Equivalent Circuits 118
5.2.4 Frequency Response: Extrinsic and Intrinsic Cutoff 121
5.2.5 PN and PIN Junctions 124
5.2.6 Schottky Junctions 129
5.2.7 Heterojunctions 130
5.2.7.1 Uni-travelling Carrier Photodiode 131
5.2.7.2 Multispectral Photodiodes 133
5.2.7.3 Lattice Matching 133
5.2.7.4 Lattice Constant Diagram 134
5.2.7.5 Interfaces 136
5.2.8 Photodiodes Structures 137
5.2.8.1 Traditional Structures 137
5.2.8.2 Advanced Structures 139
5.2.8.3 Resonant Cavity Enhanced Photodetectors 141
5.2.8.4 Quantum well Photodetectors 141
5.2.9 Photodiodes Packaging 142
5.2.10 Photodiode Specifications and Parameters 142
5.3 Photodiode Circuits 145
5.3.1 Circuits for Instrumentation Applications 146
5.3.1.1 Transimpedence Circuit 146
5.3.1.2 Dark Current Cancellation Circuit 153
5.3.1.3 Logarithmic Conversion Circuit 154
5.3.1.4 Circuit for Low-Frequency Suppression 157
5.3.1.5 Narrow-Band Response Circuit 159
5.3.2 Circuits for Fast Pulses and Communications 160
5.3.2.1 High-Frequency Transimpedance Amplifiers (TIA) 160
5.3.2.2 Equalization Technique 165
5.3.2.3 Switched Capacitor Technique 168
References 172
Problems 173
Chapter 6 Avalanche Photodiode, SPAD and SiPM 175
6.1 Avalanche Photodiode 175
6.1.1 Gain of the APDs 177
6.1.2 Frequency Response and Noise 180
6.1.3 Experimental Evidence and Deviations 187
6.1.4 APD Structures 187
6.1.5 Bandgap Engineered APD 190
6.1.6 APD Biasing and Requisites 193
6.2 Single Photon Avalanche Detectors (SPAD) 195
6.2.1 The APD in Geiger Mode 195
6.2.2 SPAD Structures 200
6.2.3 SPAD Quenching 202
6.2.4 SPAD Performances and Parameters 204
6.3 Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPM) 206
6.4 SPAD Arrays 210
6.4.1 Microlenses for SPAD Arrays 212
6.4.2 Applications of SPAD Arrays 216
References 218
Problems 220
Chapter 7 Phototransistors, Photoconductors and SNSPD 221
7.1 Phototransistors 221
7.1.1 Bipolar Phototransistor 222
7.1.2 The Optocoupler 225
7.1.3 Unipolar Phototransistors and PhoSCR 227
7.2 Photoconductors 231
7.2.1 Photoconduction and Trapping Gain 232
7.2.2 Photoconductance 234
7.2.3 Frequency Response and Noise 234
7.2.4 Phoconductor Types 236
7.2.5 PV and PC Detectors for IR 237
7.3 Superconducting Nanowire Single Photon Detector 239
References 244
Chapter 8 Thermal Detectors and Thermography 245
8.1 Basics of Thermal Detectors 246
8.2 Detectivity of Thermal Detectors 251
8.3 Temperature Measurements and NEDT 253
8.3.1 Accuracy of Temperature Measurement 254
8.3.2 Emissivity and Correction of Temperature Measurement 257
8.3.3 Two-Color Pyrometry 259
8.3.4 Thermography and Applications 259
References 262
Problems 263
Chapter 9 Solar Cells265
9.1 Electrical Parameters 266
9.2 Solar Spectrum and Quantum Efficiency 269
9.3 System Efficiency 271
9.4 Solar Cell Structures and Materials 271
9.4.1 Second Generation Materials 275
9.5 Photovoltaic Systems 277
References 282
Problems 282
Chapter 10 Coherent Detection 283
10.1 Direct and Coherent Detection 284
10.1.1 Introduction 284
10.1.2 Coherence Factor 285
10.1.3 Signal to Noise Ratio 287
10.1.4 Conditions for Coherent Detection 289
10.1.5 S/N and BER, Number of Photons per Bit 290
10.2 Coherent Techniques 293
10.2.1 The Balanced Detector 293
10.2.2 The Balanced Scheme in Phase Measurements 296
10.2.3 Examples of Coherent Schemes 296
10.2.4 Photomixing 298
References 301
Problems 301
Chapter 11 Photodetection Techniques 303
11.1 Detection with Optical Preamplification 303
11.2 Injection Detection 308
11.2.1 Injection Gain 309
11.2.2 Bandwidth and Noise of Injection Detection 314
11.2.3 Detection of Terahertz Waves 314
11.3 Non-Demolitive Detection 316
11.4 Detection of Squeezed States 320
11.5 Ultrafast (ps and fs) Pulse Detection 326
11.5.1 Autocorrelation Measurements 327
11.5.2 FROG 333
11.6 Detection for Quantum Communications 335
11.7 Detection for LIDAR 340
References 343
Problems 344
Chapter 12 Image Detectors 347
12.1 The Early Imaging Device: the Vidicon 348
12.2 Charge Coupled Devices 349
12.2.1 Introduction 349
12.2.2 Principle of Operation 349
12.2.3 Properties and Parameters 351
12.2.4 Image Organization 360
12.2.5 Output Stage 366
12.3 Spatial Resolution and MTF 368
12.3.1 Spatial Transfer Function 368
12.3.2 MTF Properties 370
12.3.3 Image Sampling and Moiré 372
12.3.4 Applications 375
12.4 Image Converters and Intensifiers 377
12.4.1 Introduction 377
12.4.2 Basic Functions and Gain 378
12.4.3 Intensifier Generations 381
12.4.4 Parameters and Performances 385
12.4.5 Zoom, Gated and X-Rays Intensifiers 388
12.4.6 Streak-camera Intensifiers 390
References 393
Problems 394
Appendixes 395
A1 Spectral Ranges and Measure Units 395
A1.1 Nomenclature 395
A1.2 Transmission of Natural Media 355
A1.3 Radiometric and Photometric Units 397
A1.4 Attenuation Units 399
A1.5 Blackbody Radiance 401
A1.6 Luminous and Radiant Sensitivity 403
References 404
Problems 404
A2 Eye Performances 405
A2.1 Visual Acuity 405
A2.2 Chromatic Perception 408
References 414
A3 Noise Revisited 414
A3.1 Shot Noise 414
A3.2 Noise in Resistors 416
A3.3 Noise from Statistical Thermodynamics 417
References 419
A4 Calculations on Photodiodes 419
A4.1 Calculation of the Intrinsic Speed of Response 419
A4.2 Series Resistance 422
A4.3 Calculations on the Transimpedance Circuit 423
A4.4 The Transimpedance Scheme at High Frequencies 424
A4.5 Edge Effects and Guard Ring 426
References 426
A5 New Model of Noise 427
A5.1 Semiclassical Wave model 427
References 432
Index 433
