Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv
About the Editor xxix
Part I General aspects 1
1 Climate Change And Vector-Borne Viral Diseases 3Ying Zhang, Alana Hansen, and Peng Bi
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Epidemiology of VVD 4
1.3 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 6
1.4 Invasion of nonzoonotic vvd to humans 14
1.5 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14
References 16
2 Impact Of Climate Change On Vector-Borne Arboviral Episystems 21Walter J. Tabachnick and Jonathan F. Day
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 24
2.3 West Nile virus 25
2.4 Dengue in Florida 28
2.5 Bluetongue 29
2.6 Conclusions 31
Acknowledgement 32
References 32
3 Influence Of Climate Change On Mosquito Development And Blood-Feeding Patterns 35William E. Walton and William K. Reisen
3.1 Introduction 36
3.2 Mosquito development 37
3.3 Blood-feeding patterns 46
References 52
4 Environmental Perturbations That Influence Arboviral Host Range: Insights Into Emergence Mechanisms 57Aaron C. Brault and William K. Reisen
4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 The changing environment 59
4.3 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine encephalitis virus 62
4.4 Rice, mosquitoes, pigs, and japanese encephalitis virus 63
4.5 Culex pipiens complex, house sparrows, urbanization, and west Nile virus 66
4.6 Urbanization, global trade, and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 70
4.7 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 The Socio-Ecology Of Viral Zoonotic Transfer 77Jonathan D. Mayer and Sarah Paige
5.1 Introduction 78
5.2 Historical perspective 78
5.3 Humananimal interface 79
5.4 Surveillance 79
5.5 Deforestation and fragmentation 80
5.6 Urbanization 81
5.7 Examples 82
5.8 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 Human Behavior And The Epidemiology Of Viral Zoonoses 87Satesh Bidaisee, Cheryl Cox Macpherson, and Calum N.L. Macpherson
6.1 Introduction 88
6.2 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
6.3 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92
6.4 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93
6.5 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96
6.6 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98
6.7 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101
6.8 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103
References 104
7 Global Trave l, Trade, And The Spread Of Viral Infections 111Brian D. Gushulak and Douglas W. MacPherson
7.1 Introduction 112
7.2 Basic principles 113
7.3 An overview of population mobility 113
7.4 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
7.5 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 115
7.6 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 117
7.7 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
7.8 Potential impact of climate change 126
7.9 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 Effects Of Land-Use Changes And Agricultural Practices On The Emergence And Reemergence Of Human Viral Diseases 133Kimberly Fornace, Marco Liverani, Jonathan Rushton, and Richard Coker
8.1 Introduction 134
8.2 Ecological and environmental changes 136
8.3 Agricultural change 139
8.4 Demographic changes 141
8.5 Land use, disease emergence, and multifactorial causation 143
8.6 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 Animal Migration And Risk Of Spread Of Viral Infections 151Diann J. Prosser, Jessica Nagel, and John Y. Takekawa
9.1 Introduction 152
9.2 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread? 152
9.3 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
9.4 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 166
9.5 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 166
9.6 Combined effects of climate change, disease, and migration 167
9.7 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170
References 170
10 Illegal Animal And (Bush) Meat Trade Associated Risk Of Spread Of Viral Infections 179Christopher Kilonzo, Thomas J. Stopka, and Bruno Chomel
10.1 Introduction 180
10.2 Search strategy and selection criteria 180
10.3 The bushmeat trade 181
10.4 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181
10.5 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
10.6 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184
10.7 Case study: The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution of Hiv 185
10.8 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186
10.9 Discussion and future directions 187
10.10 Prevention and control: From supply and demand to health education techniques 187
10.11 New technologies 188
10.12 Collaboration: Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 189
10.13 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190
References 190
11 Biological Significance Of Bats As A Natural Reservoir Of Emerging Viruses 195Angela M. Bosco-Lauth and Richard A. Bowen
11.1 Introduction 195
11.2 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196
11.3 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
11.4 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203
11.5 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205
11.6 Conclusions 206
References 206
12 Role And Strategies Of Surveillance Networks In Handling Emerging And Reemerging Viral Infections 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado
12.1 Introduction 214
12.2 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214
12.3 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
12.4 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216
12.5 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217
12.6 New expansion of surveillance by the ihr-2005 218
12.7 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218
12.8 Global influenza surveillance and whos pandemic influenza preparedness framework 219
12.9 Early warning surveillance systems 220
12.10 Innovative approaches for surveillance 222
12.11 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information reporting, sharing, and dissemination 222
12.12 Real-time and near real-time information 223
12.13 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious disease outbreaks 223
12.14 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
12.15 Incorporation of publicprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
12.16 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 226
12.17 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 226
12.18 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers for monitoring, analysis, and response in surveillance efforts 227
12.19 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 Predictive Modeling Of Emerging Infections 233Anna L. Buczak, Steven M. Babin, Brian H. Feighner, Phillip T. Koshute, and Sheri H. Lewis
13.1 Introduction 233
13.2 Types of models 234
13.3 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235
13.4 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241
13.5 Examples of prediction models 244
13.6 Conclusion 250
References 250
14 Developments And Challenges In Diagnostic Virology 255Luisa Barzon, Laura Squarzon, Monia Pacenti, and Giorgio Palù
14.1 Introduction 256
14.2 Preparedness 258
14.3 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259
14.4 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
14.5 Conclusions 267
Acknowledgement 268
References 268
15 Advances In Detecting And Responding To Threats From Bioterrorism And Emerging Viral Infections 275Stephen A. Morse and Angela Weber
15.1 Introduction 276
15.2 Emerging, reemerging, and intentionally emerging diseases 276
15.3 Bioterrorism 278
15.4 Viruses as bioweapons 279
15.5 Impact of biotechnology 282
15.6 Deterrence, recognition, and response 284
15.7 Public health surveillance 288
15.8 Conclusion 291
References 291
16 Molecular And Evolutionary Mechanisms Of Viral Emergence 297Juan Carlos Saiz, Francisco Sobrino, Noemí Sevilla, Verónica Martín, Celia Perales, and Esteban Domingo
16.1 Introduction: Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298
16.2 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence: a role of complexity 299
16.3 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300
16.4 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in viral disease emergence 302
16.5 Ample genetic and host range variations of fmdv: a human epidemic to be? 304
16.6 The arbovirus host alternations: high exposure to environmental modifications 307
16.7 Arenaviruses: As an emerging threat 313
16.8 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316
References 316
17 Drivers Of Emergence And Sources Of Future Emerging And Reemerging Viral Infections 327Leslie A. Reperant and Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus
17.1 Introduction 328
17.2 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
17.3 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334 17.4 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338 References 33918 Spillover Transmission And Emergence Of Viral Outbreaks In Humans 343Sunit K. Singh 18.1 Introduction 343 18.2 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344 18.3 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347 18.4 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349 18.5 Conclusion 349 References 349Part II Specific Infections 35319 New, Emerging, And Reemerging Respiratory Viruses 355Fleur M. Moesker, Pieter L.A. Fraaij, and Albert D.M.E. Osterhaus 19.1 Introduction 356
19.2 Influenza viruses 359
19.3 Human metapneumovirus 362
19.4 Human coronaviruses: SARS and non-SARS 363
19.5 Human bocavirus 366
19.6 KI and WU polyomaviruses 367
19.7 Nipah and hendra viruses 368
19.8 Conclusion 369
19.9 List of abbreviations 369
References 370
20 Emergence Of Zoonotic Orthopox Virus Infections 377Tomoki Yoshikawa, Masayuki Saijo, and Shigeru Morikawa
20.1 Smallpox, a representative orthopoxvirus infection: The eradicated non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 377
20.2 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 379
Acknowledgement 387
References 387
21 Biological Aspects Of The Interspecies Transmission Of Selected Coronavi ruses 393Anastasia N. Vlasova and Linda J. Saif
21.1 Introduction 393
21.2 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397
21.3 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399
21.4 Alpha-, beta- and gamma coronaviruses: cross-species transmission 404
21.5 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity and outbreaks 407
21.6 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 Impac t Of Environmental And Social Factors On Ross River Virus Outbreaks 419Craig R. Williams and David O. Harley
22.1 Introduction 420
22.2 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420
22.3 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421
22.4 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422
22.5 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423
22.6 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 423
22.7 Climate Change and RRV 427
22.8 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428
References 428
23 Infection Patterns And Emergence Of Onyong-Nyong Virus 433Ann M. Powers
23.1 Introduction 433
23.2 History of outbreaks 434
23.3 Clinical manifestations 435
23.4 Epidemiology 435
23.5 Factors affecting emergence 437
23.6 Conclusion 440
References 441
24 Zoonotic Hepa titis E: Animal Reservoirs, Emerging Risks, And Impact Of Climate Change 445Nicole Pavio and Jérôme Bouquet
24.1 Introduction 446
24.2 HEV biology and classification 446
24.3 Pathogenesis in humans 449
24.4 Animal Reservoirs 451
24.5 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454
24.6 HEV in the environment 456
24.7 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457
24.8 Prevention 458
24.9 Conclusion 458
Acknowledgement 459
References 459
25 Impact Of Climate Change On Outbreaks Of ArenaviralInfections 467 James Christopher Clegg
25.1 Introduction 467
25.2 Natural history of arenaviruses 468
25.3 Predicted climate changes 470
25.4 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 Emerging And Reemerging Human Bunyavirus Infections And Climate Change 477Laura J. Sutherland, Assaf Anyamba, and A. Desiree LaBeaud
26.1 Introduction 478
26.2 Bunyaviridae family 478
26.3 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae: Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 482
26.4 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 485
26.5 using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 486
26.6 Future problems 489
References 489
27 Emerging Trend Of Astroviruses, Enteric Adenoviruses, And Rotavi ruses In Human ViralGastroenteritis 495Daniel Cowley, Celeste Donato, and Carl D. Kirkwood 27.1 Introduction 496 27.2 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
27.3 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 501
27.4 Emerging trends in astroviruses 504
28 Emerging Human Norovirus Infections 517Melissa K. Jones, Shu Zhu, and Stephanie M. Karst
28.1 Introduction 517
28.2 Norovirus epidemiology 518
28.3 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519
28.4 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521
28.5 Host Susceptibility 522
28.6 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522
28.7 Effect of globalization of the food market on norovirus spread 523
28.8 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 Emergence Of Novel Viruses (Toscana, Usutu) In Population And Climate Change 535Mari Paz Sánchez-Seco Fariñas and Ana Vazquez
29.1 Introduction 536
29.2 TOSV 536
29.3 USUV 542
29.4 Conclusions 550
30 Borna Disease Virus And The Search For Human Infection 557Kathryn M. Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre 30.1 Introduction 558
30.2 Long-standing controversy around bdv as a human pathogen 559
30.3 A negative is impossible to prove, but do we have enough evidence to stop looking? 560
30.4 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of bdv in human samples 562
30.4.1 Serology 562
30.4.2 Nucleic acid tests 563
30.5 The possibilities for clinical expression of human bdv infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
30.6 Epidemiology: the new frontier of human bdv studies? 565
30.7 Where do we go from here? 566
Acknowledgement 568
References 568
31 Tick-Transmitted Viruses And Climate Change 573Agustín Estrada-Peña, Zdenek Hubálek, and Ivo Rudolf
31.1 Introduction 574
31.2 Ticks in nature 575
31.3 Family Flaviviridae 576
31.4 Family Bunyaviridae 583
31.5 Family Reoviridae 590
31.5.1 Colorado tick fever virus 590
31.5.2 Kemerovo virus 590
31.5.3 Tribeè virus 591
31.6 Family Orthomyxoviridae 591
31.6.1 Thogoto virus 591
31.6.2 Dhori virus 592
31.7 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592
31.8 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594
References 594
32 The TickVirus Interface 603Kristin L. McNally and Marshall E. Bloom
32.1 Introduction 604
32.2 Viruses within the tick vector 605
32.3 Saliva-assisted transmission 609
32.4 Summary and future directions 611
Acknowledgements 612
References 612
Index 617
