Modern Hybrid Electric Vehiclesprovides vital guidance to help a new generation of engineers master the principles of and further advance hybrid vehicle technology. The authors address purely electric, hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric, hybrid hydraulic, fuel cell, and off-road hybrid vehicle systems. They focus on the power and propulsion systems for these vehicles, including issues related to power and energy management. They concentrate on material that is not readily available in other hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) books such as design examples for hybrid vehicles, and cover new developments in the field including electronic CVT, plug-in hybrid, and new power converters and controls.Covers hybrid vs. pure electric, HEV system architecture (including plug-in and hydraulic), off-road and other industrial utility vehicles, non-ground-vehicle applications like ships, locomotives, aircrafts, system reliability, EMC, storage technologies, vehicular power and energy management, diagnostics and prognostics, and electromechanical vibration issues.Contains core fundamentals and principles of modern hybrid vehicles at component level and system level.Provides graduate students and field engineers with a text suitable for classroom teaching or self-study.

About the Authors xiii

Preface xvii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Sustainable Transportation 3

1.1.1 Population, Energy, and Transportation4

1.1.2 Environment5

1.1.3 Economic Growth6

1.1.4 New Fuel Economy Requirement7

1.2 A Brief History of HEVs 8

1.3 Why EVs Emerged and Failed in the 1990s, and What We Can Learn from It 10

1.4 Architectures of HEVs 11

1.4.1 Series HEVs12

1.4.2 Parallel HEVs13

1.4.3 SeriesParallel HEVs14

1.4.4 Complex HEVs15

1.4.5 Diesel Hybrids15

1.4.6 Other Approaches to Vehicle Hybridization16

1.4.7 Hybridization Ratio16

1.5 Interdisciplinary Nature of HEVs 17

1.6 State of the Art of HEVs 18

1.6.1 The Toyota Prius19

1.6.2 The Honda Civic21

1.6.3 The Ford Escape21

1.6.4 The Two-Mode Hybrid21

1.7 Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs 22

1.8 The Invisible HandGovernment Support 23

References 25

2 Concept of Hybridization of the Automobile 27

2.1 Vehicle Basics 27

2.1.1 Constituents of a Conventional Vehicle27

2.1.2 Vehicle and Propulsion Load27

2.1.3 Drive Cycles and Drive Terrain30

2.2 Basics of the EV 31

2.2.1 Why EV?31

2.2.2 Constituents of an EV32

2.2.3 Vehicle and Propulsion Loads34

2.3 Basics of the HEV 35

2.3.1 Why HEV?35

2.3.2 Constituents of a HEV35

2.4 Basics of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) 36

2.4.1 Why PHEV?36

2.4.2 Constituents of a PHEV37

2.4.3 Comparison between the HEV and PHEV38

2.5 Basics of Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs) 38

2.5.1 Why FCV?38

2.5.2 Constituents of a FCV39

2.5.3 Some Issues Related to Fuel Cells39

Reference 39

3 HEV Fundamentals 41

3.1 Introduction 41

3.2 Vehicle Model 42

3.3 Vehicle Performance 44

3.4 EV Powertrain Component Sizing 47

3.5 Series Hybrid Vehicle 51

3.6 Parallel Hybrid Vehicle 56

3.6.1 Electrically Peaking Hybrid Concept57

3.6.2 ICE Characteristics63

3.6.3 Gradability Requirement63

3.6.4 Selection of Gear Ratio from ICE to Wheel64

3.7 Wheel Slip Dynamics 65

References 67

4 Advanced HEV Architectures and Dynamics of HEV Powertrain 69

4.1 Principle of Planetary Gears 69

4.2 Toyota Prius and Ford Escape Hybrid Powertrain 72

4.3 GM Two-Mode Hybrid Transmission 76

4.3.1 Operating Principle of the Two-Mode Powertrain76

4.3.2 Mode 0: Vehicle Launch and Backup77

4.3.3 Mode 1: Low Range78

4.3.4 Mode 2: High Range79

4.3.5 Mode 3: Regenerative Braking80

4.3.6 Transition from Mode 0 to Mode 380

4.4 Dual-Clutch Hybrid Transmissions 83

4.4.1 Conventional DCT Technology84

4.4.2 Gear Shift Schedule84

4.4.3 DCT-Based Hybrid Powertrain85

4.4.4 Operation of DCT-Based Hybrid Powertrain87

4.5 Hybrid Transmission Proposed by Zhanget al. 89

4.5.1 Motor-Alone Mode90

4.5.2 Combined Power Mode91

4.5.3 Engine-Alone Mode91

4.5.4 Electric CVT Mode91

4.5.5 Energy Recovery Mode92

4.5.6 Standstill Mode92

4.6 Renault IVT Hybrid Transmission 92

4.7 Timken Two-Mode Hybrid Transmission 93

4.7.1 Mode 0: Launch and Reverse94

4.7.2 Mode 1: Low-Speed Operation94

4.7.3 Mode 2: High-Speed Operation94

4.7.4 Mode 4: Series Operating Mode94

4.7.5 Mode Transition96

4.8 Tsais Hybrid Transmission 96

4.9 Hybrid Transmission with Both Speed and Torque Coupling Mechanism 98

4.10 Toyota Highlander and Lexus Hybrid, E-Four-Wheel Drive 99

4.11 CAMRY Hybrid 101

4.12 Chevy Volt Powertrain 102

4.13 Dynamics of Planetary-Based Transmissions 103

4.13.1 Non-ideal Gears in the Planetary System103

4.13.2 Dynamics of the Transmission104

4.14 Conclusions 105

References 106

5 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles 107

5.1 Introduction to PHEVs 107

5.1.1 PHEVs and EREVs107

5.1.2 Blended PHEVs108

5.1.3 Why PHEV?108

5.1.4 Electricity for PHEV Use110

5.2 PHEV Architectures 110

5.3 Equivalent Electric Range of Blended PHEVs 112

5.4 Fuel Economy of PHEVs 112

5.4.1 Well-to-Wheel Efficiency113

5.4.2 PHEV Fuel Economy113

5.4.3 Utility Factor114

5.5 Power Management of PHEVs 115

5.6 PHEV Design and Component Sizing 118

5.7 Component Sizing of EREVs 119

5.8 Component Sizing of Blended PHEVs 119

5.9 HEV to PHEV Conversions 120

5.9.1 Replacing the Existing Battery Pack120

5.9.2 Adding an Extra Battery Pack122

5.9.3 Converting Conventional Vehicles to PHEVs123

5.10 Other Topics on PHEVs 123

5.10.1 End-of-Life Battery for Electric Power Grid Support123

5.10.2 Cold Start Emissions Reduction in PHEVs123

5.10.3 Cold Weather/Hot Weather Performance Enhancement in PHEVs124

5.10.4 PHEV Maintenance124

5.10.5 Safety of PHEVs124

5.11 Vehicle-to-Grid Technology 125

5.11.1 PHEV Battery Charging126

5.11.2 Impact of G2V126

5.11.3 The Concept of V2G129

5.11.4 Advantages of V2G134

5.11.5 Case Studies of V2G134

5.12 Conclusion 136

References 138

6 Special Hybrid Vehicles 139

6.1 Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles 139

6.1.1 Regenerative Braking in HHVs142

6.2 Off-road HEVs 144

6.3 Diesel HEVs 149

6.4 Electric or Hybrid Ships, Aircraft, Locomotives 150

6.4.1 Ships150

6.4.2 Aircraft154

6.4.3 Locomotives156

6.5 Other Industrial Utility Application Vehicles 159

References 160

Further Reading 160

7 HEV Applications for Military Vehicles 163

7.1 Why HEVs Can Be Beneficial to Military Applications 163

7.2 Ground Vehicle Applications 164

7.2.1 Architecture Series, Parallel, Complex164

7.2.2 Vehicles Which Are of Most Benefit166

7.3 Non-ground Vehicle Military Applications 168

7.3.1 Electromagnetic Launchers169

7.3.2 Hybrid-Powered Ships170

7.3.3 Aircraft Applications171

7.3.4 Dismounted Soldier Applications171

7.4 Ruggedness Issues 173

References 174

Further Reading 175

8 Diagnostics, Prognostics, Reliability, EMC, and Other Topics Related to HEVs 177

8.1 Diagnostics and Prognostics in HEVs and EVs 177

8.1.1 Onboard Diagnostics178

8.1.2 Prognostics Issues180

8.2 Reliability of HEVs 182

8.2.1 Analyzing the Reliability of HEV Architectures183

8.2.2 Reliability and Graceful Degradation185

8.2.3 Software Reliability Issues187

8.3 EMC Issues 190

8.4 Noise Vibration Harshness (NVH), Electromechanical, and Other Issues 192

8.5 End-of-Life Issues 194

References 195

Further Reading 195

9 Power Electronics in HEVs 197

9.1 Introduction 197

9.2 Principle of Power Electronics 198

9.3 Rectifiers Used in HEVs 200

9.3.1 Ideal Rectifier200

9.3.2 Practical Rectifier201

9.3.3 Single-Phase Rectifier202

9.3.4 Voltage Ripple204

9.4 Buck Converter Used in HEVs 207

9.4.1 Operating Principle207

9.4.2 Nonlinear Model208

9.5 Non-isolated Bidirectional DCDC Converter 209

9.5.1 Operating Principle209

9.5.2 Maintaining Constant Torque Range and Power Capability211

9.5.3 Reducing Current Ripple in the Battery212

9.5.4 Regenerative Braking213

9.6 Voltage Source Inverter 213

9.7 Current Source Inverter 213

9.8 Isolated Bidirectional DCDC Converter 217

9.8.1 Basic Principle and Steady State Operations218

9.8.2 Voltage Ripple222

9.9 PWM Rectifier in HEVs 226

9.9.1 Rectifier Operation of Inverter226

9.10 EV and PHEV Battery Chargers 229

9.10.1 Forward/Flyback Converters230

9.10.2 Half-Bridge DCDC Converter231

9.10.3 Full-Bridge DCDC Converter231

9.10.4 Power Factor Correction Stage232

9.10.5 Bidirectional Battery Chargers234

9.10.6 Other Charger Topologies234

9.10.7 Inductive Charging235

9.10.8 Wireless Charging236

9.11 Modeling and Simulation of HEV Power Electronics 237

9.11.1 Device-Level Simulation238

9.11.2 System-Level Model239

9.12 Emerging Power Electronics Devices 239

9.13 Circuit Packaging 240

9.14 Thermal Management of HEV Power Electronics 240

9.15 Conclusions 243

References 243

10 Electric Machines and Drives in HEVs 245

10.1 Introduction 245

10.2 Induction Motor Drives 246

10.2.1 Principle of Induction Motors246

10.2.2 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor248

10.2.3 Speed Control of Induction Machine250

10.2.4 Variable Frequency, Variable Voltage Control of Induction Motors252

10.2.5 Efficiency and Losses of Induction Machine253

10.2.6 Additional Loss in Induction Motors due to PWM Supply254

10.2.7 Field-Oriented Control of Induction Machine265

10.3 Permanent Magnet Motor Drives 271

10.3.1 Basic Configuration of PM Motors272

10.3.2 Basic Principle and Operation of PM Motors273

10.3.3 Magnetic Circuit Analysis of IPM Motors277

10.3.4 Sizing of Magnets in PM Motors286

10.3.5 Eddy Current Losses in the Magnets of PM Machines291

10.4 Switched Reluctance Motors 291

10.5 Doubly Salient Permanent Magnet Machines 293

10.6 Design and Sizing of Traction Motors 297

10.6.1 Selection of A and B298

10.6.2 Speed Rating of the Traction Motor298

10.6.3 Determination of the Inner Power299

10.7 Thermal Analysis and Modeling of Traction Motors 299

10.8 Conclusions 306

References 306

11 Batteries, Ultracapacitors, Fuel Cells, and Controls 315

11.1 Introduction 315

11.2 Battery Characterization 317

11.3 Comparison of Different Energy Storage Technologies for HEVs 321

11.4 Modeling Based on Equivalent Electric Circuits 325

11.4.1 Battery Modeling325

11.4.2 Battery Modeling Example327

11.4.3 Modeling of Ultracapacitors329

11.4.4 Battery Modeling Example for Hybrid Battery and Ultracapacitor331

11.5 Battery Charging Control 334

11.6 Charge Management of Storage Devices 337

11.7 Flywheel Energy Storage System 341

11.8 Hydraulic Energy Storage System 344

11.9 Fuel Cells and Hybrid Fuel Cell Energy Storage System 345

11.9.1 Introduction to Fuel Cells345

11.9.2 Fuel Cell Modeling349

11.9.3 Hybrid Fuel Cell Energy Storage Systems352

11.9.4 Control Strategy of Hybrid Fuel Cell Power System355

11.10 Summary and Discussion 360

References 361

12 Modeling and Simulation of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 363

12.1 Introduction 363

12.2 Fundamentals of Vehicle System Modeling 364

12.3 HEV Modeling Using ADVISOR 366

12.4 HEV Modeling Using PSAT 369

12.5 Physics-Based Modeling 370

12.6 Bond Graph and Other Modeling Techniques 378

12.7 Consideration of Numerical Integration Methods 381

12.8 Conclusion 382

References 382

13 HEV Component Sizing and Design Optimization 385

13.1 Introduction 385

13.2 Global Optimization Algorithms for HEV Design 386

13.2.1 DIRECT386

13.2.2 Simulated Annealing391

13.2.3 Genetic Algorithms393

13.2.4 Particle Swarm Optimization395

13.2.5 Advantages/Disadvantages of Different Optimization Algorithms398

13.3 Model-in-the-Loop Design Optimization Process 399

13.4 Parallel HEV Design Optimization Example 400

13.5 Series HEV Design Optimization Example 405

13.5.1 Control Framework of a series HEV Powertrain405

13.5.2 Series HEV Parameter Optimization407

13.5.3 Optimization Results408

13.6 Conclusion 410

References 412

14 Vehicular Power Control Strategy and Energy Management 413

14.1 A Generic Framework, Definition, and Needs 413

14.2 Methodology to Implement 415

14.2.1 Methodologies for Optimization420

14.2.2 Cost Function Optimization423

14.3 Benefits of Energy Management 428

References 429

Further Reading 429

15 Commercialization and Standardization of HEV Technology and Future Transportation 431

15.1 What Is Commercialization and Why Is It Important for HEVs? 431

15.2 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Enablers of Commercialization 431

15.3 Standardization and Commercialization 432

15.4 Commercialization Issues and Effects on Various Types of Vehicles 433

15.5 Commercialization and Future of HEVs and Transportation 434

Further Reading 434

Index 435