Preface, xi
About the Authors, xiii
Acknowledgements, xv
Part One: Introduction to Qualitative Research: Starting Out
1 The Main Features and Uses of Qualitative Research, 3
What is qualitative research?, 3
The characteristics of qualitative research, 3
The place of theory in qualitative research, 10
The use of qualitative research in healthcare, 12
Choosing an approach for health research, 14
Problematic issues in qualitative research, 15
Conclusion, 17
Summary, 18
References, 18
Further Reading, 20
2 The Paradigm Debate: The Place of Qualitative Research, 21
Theoretical frameworks and ontological position, 21
The paradigm debate, 23
Conflicting or complementary perspectives?, 27
Final comment, 29
References, 29
Further Reading, 30
3 Initial Steps in the Research Process, 31
Selecting and formulating the research question, 31
The literature review, 36
Writing a research proposal, 39
Access and entry to the setting, 45
Summary, 48
References, 48
Further Reading, 49
4 Ethical Issues, 51
The basic ethical framework for research, 52
Ethics in qualitative research, 55
Researching ones peers, 62
The research relationship, 62
Research in the researchers workplace, 64
The role of research ethics committees, 65
Summary, 69
References, 69
Further Reading, 71
5 Supervision of Qualitative Research, 73
The responsibilities of supervisor and student, 74
Writing and relationships, 76
Practical aspects of supervision, 77
Single or joint supervision, 79
Problems with supervision, 80
Summary, 82
References, 83
Further Reading, 83
Part Two: Data Collection and Sampling
6 Interviewing, 87
Interviews as sources of data, 87
The interview process, 88
Types of interview, 89
Probing, prompting and summarising, 93
The social context of the interview, 94
Unexpected outcomes: qualitative interviewing and therapy, 95
Length and timing of interviews, 95
Recording interview data, 96
The interviewerparticipant relationship, 98
Problematic issues and challenges in interviewing, 99
Interviewing through electronic media, 100
Ethical issues in interviewing, 103
Strengths and weaknesses of interviewing, 103
Summary, 105
References, 105
Further Reading, 106
7 Participant Observation and Documents as Sources of Data, 107
Participant observation, 107
The origins of participant observation, 108
Immersion in culture and setting, 108
Documentary sources of data, 118
Images as sources of data, 121
Summary, 122
References, 122
Further Reading, 123
8 Focus Groups as Qualitative Research, 125
What is a focus group?, 125
The origin and purpose of focus groups, 127
Sample size and composition, 128
Conducting focus group interviews, 131
Analysing and reporting focus group data, 133
Advantages and limitations of focus groups, 135
Critical comments on focus group interviews in healthcare, 136
Summary, 137
References, 137
Further Reading, 139
9 Sampling Strategies, 141
Sampling decisions, 141
Purposeful (or purposive) sampling, 143
A variety of sampling types, 145
Giving a label to the participants, 152
Summary, 153
References, 154
Further Reading, 155
Part Three: Approaches in Qualitative Research
10 Ethnography, 159
The development of ethnography, 160
Ethnographic methods, 162
Ethnography in healthcare, 163
The main features of ethnography, 165
Fieldwork, 169
Doing and writing ethnography, 172
Pitfalls and problems, 175
Summary, 175
References, 176
Further Reading, 177
11 Grounded Theory, 179
History and origin, 179
The main features of grounded theory, 181
Data collection, theoretical sampling and analysis, 182
Pitfalls and problems, 191
Glasers critique and further development, 192
Constructivist grounded theory, 194
Which approach for the health researcher?, 195
Summary, 195
References, 196
Further Reading, 197
12 Narrative Inquiry, 199
The nature of narrative and story, 199
Narrative research, 200
Illness narratives, 205
Narrative interviewing, 208
Narrative analysis, 210
Problematic issues, 213
Conclusion, 214
Summary, 215
References, 215
Further Reading, 217
13 Phenomenology, 219
Intentionality and the early stages of phenomenology, 220
Schools of phenomenology, 225
The phenomenological research process: doing phenomenology, 226
Phenomenology and health research, 229
Choice of approach: descriptive or interpretive phenomenology, 230
Procedures for data collection and analysis, 232
Summary, 235
References, 235
Further Reading, 238
14 Action Research, 239
The origins of action research, 240
Action research in healthcare, 242
The main features of action research, 243
Practical steps, 246
Trustworthiness in AR, 247
Problems and critique, 248
Summary, 250
References, 250
Further Reading, 252
15 Additional Approaches, 253
Case Study Research (CSR), 253
Overview, 253
Features and purpose of case study research, 254
Conversation analysis, 256
Critical incident technique, 259
Discourse analysis, 261
Performative social science, 265
Summary, 268
References, 268
16 Mixing Methods, 273
The nature of mixed methods studies, 273
Doing mixed methods research, 275
Types of mixed methods research, 275
The place and purpose of the literature, 279
Triangulation, 280
Critique of MMR, 280
Conclusion, 281
Summary, 281
References, 282
Further Reading, 283
Part Four: Data Analysis and Completion
17 Data Analysis: Procedures, Practices and Use of Computers, 287
Coding and categorising, 292
Problems of QDA, 294
Computer-aided analysis of qualitative data, 295
Summary, 301
References, 301
Further Reading, 302
18 Establishing Quality: Trustworthiness and Validity, 303
Quality, 303
An alternative perspective: trustworthiness, 309
Strategies to ensure trustworthiness, 310
Quality and creativity, 316
Summary, 317
References, 317
Further Reading, 319
19 Writing up Qualitative Research, 321
The research account, 321
Use of the first person, 322
The format of the report, 323
Introduction, 327
Critical assessment and evaluation, 334
Guide to research evaluation, 334
Publishing and presenting the research, 335
Summary, 338
References, 339
Further Reading, 340
Final Note, 341
Glossary, 343
Index, 349
